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Introduction

Vocabulary learning can occur deliberately or incidentally, but these approaches may differ in purpose, process, and effectiveness. Deliberate learning of second language (L2) vocabulary refers to intentional learning of words, in which learners focus on memorizing or practicing words through activities like flashcards, dictionaries, or word exercises (e.g., Nakata, 2020). On the other hand, incidental learning pertains to the learning of vocabulary as a by-product of meaning-focused tasks rather than through explicit memorization (Boers, 2020). For example, learners may be reading or listening and picking up new words without the deliberate intention to study them.

Research has shown that deliberate learning is particularly important for beginning-level learners, which leads to faster short-term gains (Webb et al.,  Continue Reading →